Whate is a Google

Google is a free service from Google where group of people. Internet users can find discussion groups related to their interface. Google Group also includes an archive of Usenet newsgroup. In February 2001,Google acquired Deja News, which provided a search engine to access to an archive of Usenet newsgroup articles. Google provides two distinct kinds of groups: traditional Usenet group and non-Usenet groups that are more similar to mailing lists. The Google Groups user interface.
Google Group allows users to easily create their own groups. During the creation process, the is prompted for a group name,e-mail address, description and access setting and then adds or invites members to the new group.
Users may create public profile which display their ,nickname,location,title,industry,website as well as the most recent posts they made.
Google Group has a directory of most Google groups and Usenet groups, Some group owners have set their groups to not appear in the directory. The directory organizes groups by topic, region, language activity level and number of member.

University of Delhi

The University of Delhi is the premier university of the country. Its high standards in teaching and research and attracts eminent scholars to its faculty.
Only three collage existed then Delhi - St. Stephens Collage founded in 1881, Hindu College founded in 1899 and Ramjas College founded in 1917, Which were affiliated to the University.
Apart from central administrative office,examination offices and the sport complex, the main departments of the Faculty of Science are housed in the Vicerege Lodge Estate. Sir Maurice Gwyer,who was the then Vice Chancellor,realizing the import ance of a distinguished faculty,searched for talent all over the country.There are 14 faculties, 86 academic departments and 79 colleges spread all over the city,with about 2,20,000 student.

Mobile Phone

Global System for Mobile communication is the most popular standard for mobile phone in the world.The key advantage of GSM system to consumer has been better voice quality. The advantage for network operators has been the ease of deploying equipment. Mobile phone connect to it by searching for cell in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 Mhz or 1800 Mhz bands. Mobile phone and the network they operate under vary significantly from provider to provide and country to country. However, all of them communicate through electromagnetic radio wave. The phone have a low-power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell site usually not more than 8 to 13 km away. When the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it register with the mobile telephone exchange. Gsm has used a varity of voice code to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and 13 kbit/s. Originally,two codecs,named after the types of data channel. There are four different cell size in GSM network-macro,micro,pico and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Micro cells can be regarded as cell where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is the name of a new technology. The Bluetooth specification defines three power classes for radio transmitters with an output power of 1m to 100m.The Bluetooth system has many optional feature. We also need to check that our silicon vendors lower stack implementation provides the Bluetooth function. Bluetooth is a standard for a small,cheap radio chip to be plugged into computer,printer,mobile phone etc. The Bluetooth specification has many optional features and even if features are mandatory to support,they do not have to be enable.

INDIAN ECONOMY

India is the world's most populous democracy. Though one of the oldest civilization in existence. It has been a nation only since the end of British colonial rule in 1947. Historically, services and manufacturing have driven economic gains, but the majority of Indians still work in agriculture.
India was largest and intentionally isolated from the world market. India's exports were stagnant for the 15 years after independence. The predominance of tea, jute and cotton manufactures, demand for which
was generally inelastic. India's major trading partners are China, the US,the UAE,the UK,Japan and the EU. India is a found-member of general agreement on tariffs and trade(GATT) since 1947 and its successor.
India's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. As the third-largest ecomy in the world. India is undoubtedly one of the most preferred destination for foreign direct investments(FDI). India has strength in information technology and other significant areas are auto components,chemicals,apparels, pharmaceuticals and jewelery.

womem's smoking

India is the largest producer of tobacco after China and America. There are 142 million men and 72 million women above the age of 15 years who consume tobacco; 2,200 persons die every day from tobacco related diseases . People are becoming aware of the ill-effects of smoking in terms of morbidity and mortality.
Woman and the Tobacco Epidemic – Challenges for the 21th Century states that eight percent of women developing countries and above 15% in industrialized countries currently smoke cigarettes. In India, about one-third of women use at least one from of tobacco. Overall prevalence of bidi and cigarette smoking among women is about 3% and 22% women consumers use smoking tobacco.Female smokers are more susceptible to osteoporosis or brittle bones. Also, smoking during pregnancy significantly increases the change of the infant dying of sudden infant death syndrome,delivering a pre-mature baby,delivering a low birth-weight baby.

WATER POLLUTION

There are many specific causes of water pollution, but before we list the toppers, it's important to understand two broad categories of water pollution:
“Point source” — occurs when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water.
“Nonpoint source” — delivers pollutants indirectly through transport or environmental change. An example of a point source of water pollution is a pipe from an industrial facility discharging effluent directly into a river. An example of a nonpoint-source of water pollution is when fertilizer from a farm field is carried into a stream by rain (i.e. run-off).
Point-source pollution is usually monitored and regulated, though political factors may complicate how successful efforts are at true pollution control. Nonpoint sources aremuch more difficult to monitor and control, and today they account for the majority of contaminants in streams and lakes.
Many causes of pollution, including sewage, manure, and chemical fertilizers, contain "nutrients" such as nitrates and phosphates. Deposition of atmospheric nitrogen (from nitrogen oxides) also causes nutrient-type water pollution.

Ganga

There are many rivers in the India that the Ganges River is the greatest water river in India.It is a longest rivers in the India.The river flows across the northern corner of India.Some of the most important Hindu festivals is celebrated on the banks of the river Ganga such as the Kumbh and the Chhat puja. It has thousands of temples along the banks of the Ganga.The Ganga is a part of our history and mythology.The Ganga has an exalted postion in the Hindu Ethos.It is repeatedly invoked in the Vedas,the Puranas,the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.The river is 2,507km long and flow through India,Nepal and Bangladesh.The river emergs from an ice cave under the Gangotri glacier, 3,792m above sea level.The Ganga river provid water to many places and many plases rely on it.

About the motherboard

A motherboard is the central or primary circuit board making up a complex electronic system, such as a modern computer. It is also known as a mainboard, baseboard, system board.
Most after-market motherboards produced today are designed for so-called IBM-compatible computers, which hold over 96% of the personal computer market today.
The basic purpose of the motherboard, like a backplane, is to provide the electrical and logical connections by which the other components of the system communicate.

Components and functions
The motherboard of a typical desktop consists of a large PCB. It holds electronic components and interconnects, as well as physical connectors (sockets, slots, and headers) into which other computer components may be inserted or attached.
Most motherboards include, at a minimum:
socket in which one or more microprocessors (CPUs) are installed
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors and circuits, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.
Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.
Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heatsinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.
Integrated peripherals
Highly-integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.
For example the ECS RS485M-M, a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals:
disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 4 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support)
integrated ATI Radeon graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
integrated sound card supporting 6-channel audio and S/PDIF output
fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 8 USB ports
temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components

History
Prior to the advent of the Apple II in 1977, a computer was usually built in a case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires. The CPU, memory and I/O peripherals were housed on individual PCBs or cards which plugged into the backplane.
With the arrival of the microprocessor, it became more cost-effective to place the backplane connectors, processor and glue logic onto a single "mother" board, with video, memory and I/O functions on "child" cards — hence the terms "motherboard" and daughterboard. The Apple II computer featured a motherboard with 8 expansion slots.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see above). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the early 2000s, many motherboards support a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retain only the graphics card as a separate component.
It can be argued that the motherboard industry was born by IBM in 1981 with the release their entry level 5150 Personal Computer (IBM PC) which was based on a motherboard. The motherboard provided an Intel 4.77MHz 8088 with 16K bytes of on-board memory, expandable to 640K through the use of plug-in memory boards, eight 8-bit ISA expansion connectors, cassette tape port and keyboard port. All other I/O such as the interface for 160K 5-1/4" floppy drives, serial and parallel ports were provided by plug-in boards. IBM approached Digital Research about using DR/DOS as an operating system but was rebuffed. IBM approached Microsoft and licensed PC-DOS. Microsoft released PC-DOS 1.1 in 1982 by retaining rights to the operating system allowing them to sell it to other manufacturers.
IBM published the schematics and I/O map allowing the birth of the clone motherboard industry.

Software Meets Hardware: the BIOS
A computer motherboard is a piece of hardware: it is the physical circuits and interconnecting wires that forms the backbone of a computer. It has logic circuits which can be manipulated and controlled by the operator, the software program, and input peripherals. But in order to begin operating from a power-off state, a motherboard must be bootstrapped (or simply, booted) by an initial set of software instructions. Without this vital software, the motherboard is rendered useless.
Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in a EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a Power On Self Test or POST. Errors during POST result in POST error codes, ranging from simple audible beeps from the speaker to complex diagnostic messages displayed on the video monitor.
The BIOS often requires configuration settings to be stored on the motherboard. Since configuration settings must be easily edited, these settings are often stored in non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) rather than in some sort of read-only memory (ROM). When a user makes configuration changes or alters the date and time of the computer, this small NVRAM circuit stores the data. Typically, a small, long-lasting battery (e.g. a lithium coin cell CR3032) is used to keep the NVRAM "refreshed" for many years. Therefore, a failing battery on a motherboard will produce the symptoms of a computer that cannot determine the correct date and time, nor remember what hardware configuration the user has selected. The BIOS itself is unaffected by the status of the battery.
When IBM first introduced the PC in the 1980s, imitations were quite common. (The physical parts which made up the motherboard were trivial to acquire.) However, the imitations were never successful until the IBM ROM BIOS was legally copied.To understand why copying the BIOS was an important step, consider that the BIOS contained vital instructions which interacted with peripherals. Without these software instructions in the BIOS, a PC would not function properly. (In most modern computer operating systems, the BIOS is bypassed for most hardware functions, but in the 1980s, the BIOS served many vital low-level functions.)
So when Compaq Computer Corp. Phoenix Technology soon matched their feat and began reselling BIOSes to other clone makers. It has been noted that Microsoft was more than happy to license the operating system (DOS), and IBM was more than happy to sue companies that violated the copyright of their BIOS. But by documenting and publicizing the reverse engineering of the BIOS, Compaq and Phoenix were legally competing with IBM using their own copyrighted BIOS.
Once the bootstrapping of the computer's peripherals are complete, the BIOS will normally pass control to another set of instructions stored on a bootable device.
Devices which are normally used to boot a computer:
floppy drive
network controller
CD-ROM drive
DVD-ROM drive
SCSI hard drive
IDE, EIDE, or SATA hard drive
External USB memory storage device
Any of the above devices can be stored with machine code instructions to load an operating system or a program.

Operating System

An operating system (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of a computer. An operating system processes raw system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system.Most operating systems come with an application that provides a user interface for managing the operating system, such as a command line interpreter or graphical user interface. The operating system forms a platform for other system software and for application software. Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux are three of the most popular operating systems for personal computers.

Process management
Every program running on a computer, it a service or an application, is a process. As long as a von Neumann architecture is used to build computers. Mainframe operating systems have had multitasking capabilities since the early 1960s. Process management is an operating system's way of dealing with running multiple processes. Since most computers contain one processor with one core, multitasking is done by simply switching processes quickly. Depending on the operating system, as more processes run, either each time slice will become smaller or there will be a longer delay before each process is given a chance to run. Most operating systems allow a process to be assigned a priority which affects its allocation of CPU time. Interactive operating systems also employ some level of feedback in which the task with which the user is working receives higher priority. In many systems there is a background process, such as the System Idle Process in Windows, which will run when no other process is waiting for the CPU.

Memory management
Current computer architectures arrange the computer's memory in a hierarchical manner, starting from the fastest registers, CPU cache, random access memory and disk storage. This activity, usually referred to as virtual memory management, increases the amount of memory available for each process by making the disk storage seem like main memory. There is a speed penalty associated with using disks or other slower storage as memory – if running processes require significantly more RAM than is available, the system may start thrashing. This can happen either because one process requires a large amount of RAM or because two or more processes compete for a larger amount of memory than is available. This then leads to constant transfer of each process's data to slower storage.

Security
Many operating systems include some level of security. Security is based on the two ideas that:
The operating system provides access to a number of resources, directly or indirectly, such as files on a local disk, privileged system calls, personal information about users, and the services offered by the programs running on the system;
The operating system is capable of distinguishing between some requesters of these resources who are authorized (allowed) to access the resource, and others who are not authorized (forbidden).
Internal security: an already running program. On some systems, a program once it is running has no limitations, but commonly the program has an identity which it keeps and is used to check all of its requests for resources.
External security: a new request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all.

Internal security
Internal security can be thought of as protecting the computer's resources from the programs concurrently running on the system. Most operating systems set programs running natively on the computer's processor, so Generally less privileged programs are automatically blocked from using certain hardware instructions, such as those to read or write from external devices like disks. Instead, they have to ask the privileged program (operating system kernel) to read or write. The operating system therefore gets the chance to check the program's identity and allow or refuse the request.
An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is the operating system not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p-code based system such as Java.
Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing.

Graphical user interfaces
Today, most modern operating systems contain Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). A few older operating systems tightly integrated the GUI to the kernel—for example, Microsoft Windows and Mac OS The Graphical subsytem was actually part of the operating system. More modern operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel (as is now done in Linux, and Mac OS X) so that the graphics subsystem is not part of the OS at all.
Many operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire.
Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 2001

About the NCC

The Indian Parliament passed the National Cadet Corps Act in 1948, thus creating the National Cadet Corps (NCC).
History
The National Cadet Corps can be considered as a successor of the University Officers Training Corps which was established by the British in 1942. During the World War II, the UOTC never came up to the expectations set by the British.The National Cadet Corps Act was accepted by the Governor General and on 16th July 1948 the National Cadet Corps came into existence.During the 1965. 1971 wars with Pakistan, NCC cadets were the second line of defence.The NCC cadets also worked hand in hand with the Civil Defence authorities and actively took part in rescue work and traffic control. After the 1965 & 1971 Indo-Pak wars the NCC syllabus was revised.

The NCC is open to all regular students of schools and colleges. It has been divided into four divisions. The first two divisions are; the Senior Division for college boys and the Junior Division for school boys. The college cadets and the school cadets are trained differently. A single battalion of the NCC, can have companies of the Senior Division and troops of the Junior Division.
The Senior Division is organised into three wings for the Army, Navy and the Air Force and has a strength of 365,000 cadets, while the Junior Division has a strength of 658,000. The Senior Division units are known as Companies. The company is usually stationed at a college, which is under the command of a lecturer who received formal Army training and is known as an Associated NCC Officer (ANO).

A Senior Division company has a maximum of 160 cadets enrolled. Soldiers serving in Army regiments are sent to NCC battalions for two years to train NCC cadets. Each Senior Division company is assigned with a JCO and an NCO to give training. The Junior Division units are known as troops and are located in the various schools, which are under the command of a teacher who has received Army training. Each Junior Division troop is also assigned a JCO and an NCO to give training to the cadets.The second two divisions are; the Senior Wing for college girls and Junior Wing for school girls. The girls receive their training in the signalling and medical side of the Army.

The Ranks of Associated NCC Officers (ANO) in colleges and schools;Cadets who join the NCC are also given ranks according to their merit and seniority.
The ranks are similar in all the Divisions. The cadet rankings only extend up to the level of NCOs and they need not salute each other (except coming to attention when standing before a Senior). The ranked cadets are known as Cadet NCOs.College SchoolMajor Chief Officer(equivalent to Subedar Major)Captain First OfficerLieutenant Second Officer2nd Lieutenant Third OfficerCadets who join the NCC are also given ranks according to their merit and seniority. The ranks are similar in all the Divisions. The cadet rankings only extend upto the level of NCOs and they need not salute each other (except coming to attention when standing before a Senior). The ranked cadets are known as Cadet NCOs. The Junior Division and Junior Wing do not have ranks above Sergeant Major. The Sergeant Major of a troop is known as a Troop Sergeant. During camps, ranks of Regimental Sergeant Major (RSM) and Regimental Quarter-Master Sergeant (RQMS) are used.
Ranks in the NCC (Senior Division & Senior Wing);
• Senior Under Officer (one in a Company)
• Under Officer (three in a Company)
• Company Sergeant Major (one in a Company)
• Company Quarter Master Sergeant (one in a Company)
• Sergeant (three in a Company excluding the CSM and CQMS)
• Corporal (ten in a Company)
• Lance Corporal (fifteen in a Company)
• Cadet

The NCC Army units include Infantry, Armoured Corps, Artillery, Engineers, Signals, etc. Naval and Air Force units have also been organised along the same lines. The Auxiliary Cadet Corps (ACC) was a supplement of the NCC and enrolled boys and girls between the ages of 13 to 16.

With that aim in view, social service camps are held every year, with students having to undertake work on road-building, tree planting, building huts, desilting of tanks, construction of children's parks/playgrounds and village literacy campaigns.
The NCC Directorate conducts three certificate examinations for the cadets. These certificates are issued by the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The cadets who hold these certificates are also entitled for job reservations, additional marks and promotions.This certificate is for the Junior Division and Wing. Cadets have to pass theory and the practical tests to earn the A-Certificate. The theory consists of first-aid, military history & questions about drill movements. The practical part covers checking of the drill and turn out. Cadets who pass the exams receive bonus marks which is added to their 10th standard examination (in certain states).
This certificate is for the Senior Division and Wing. Tests are conducted in NCC battalions every academic year. The theory part consists of special to Corps (Infantry) subjects, civil defence & first-aid. The practical test includes rifle drill, map reading, cleaning & maintaining of rifles and machine guns. Senior Wing cadets have questions regarding first-aid and signalling as part of their practical exams. Cadets who pass the B-Certificate exams are entitled for free marks in a number of Government Job exams and weight-age marks are added to their university exams marks. A cadet should have this certificate for holding the rank of a Sergeant or above.
Similar to the B-Certificate as far as the syllabus is concerned, but the questions are more tougher. The cadets who pass the exams have the same privileges as that of a the B-Certificate except that the weight-age marks will increase. Cadets who pass C-Certificate exams with a B grade or above are exempted from the written test required for the Officers selection tests for OTA Chennai. A cadet with C-Certificate and 50% marks can straight away apply to attend the interview conducted by the Service Selection Commission.TrainingRegular Parades: NCC training is given through the regular parades conducted at the colleges on the weekends.

Student life and culture in Indian Institutes of Technology

All the IITs provide residential facilities. Research scholars, faculty inside their campus. The students live in hostels throughout their stay in the IIT. There are separate halls for girls and boys, and even for boys. Most of the students get single accommodation. Most of the students keep a computer in their rooms though there is no such rule made by the IITs to do it. The IITs also have high-speed LAN and internet connection. Co-curricular activities Students in various IITs have to compulsarily choose between National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Service Scheme(NSS) and National Sports Organization (NSO) in their first years. The choice for later years vary from one IIT to the other. The NSO is a national level sports organization. All the IITs have playgrounds of various sports including Cricket, Football, Hockey, Volleyball, Lawn Tennis, Badminton, Athletics, and swimming pools for aquatic events. Usually the hostels also have their own sports grounds. Technical festivals All IITs organize annual technical festivals in which students from the IIT and even other colleges participate. Usually the technical festivals last 3 to 4 days. Most of the technical festivals are organized in the month of February or March. Apart from the technical festivals mentioned above, some IITs also organize annual robotics contest and other technical events for the students. The Computer-Centre (referred to by the campus residents as "C-C") has about 100-150 Linux terminals and more than 100 Windows-NT terminals supported by PARAM 10000 super computer, and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation. Disk storage is provided using a networked file server system. Internet access is provided by the means of two proxy servers, one for students and another for faculty (the computer science department in IIT Kanpur has its own independent network). It is a major intellectual, social and cultural hub in the campus. The IITs (and especially IIT Kanpur) and BITS Pilani are among the first large academic institutions in India to be extensively networked, with an institute-wide LAN and Ethernet access to every student room in the residence halls. Inter IIT Sports Meet All the IITs compete in a variety of sports held under the purview of the Annual Inter IIT Sports Meet. The competition is organized every year in the month of December in one of the seven IITs by a policy of rotation. The first Inter IIT Sports Meet was held in IIT Bombay in 1961. The total number of participants in any Inter IIT Sports Meet is usually around 700. The award consists of a running shield that is passed over to the winning IIT every year.

Software

Computer software, consisting of programs, enables a computer to perform specific tasks, as opposed to its physical components (hardware) which can only do the tasks they are mechanically designed for. The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to run the necessary services for user-interfaces and applications, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.

Relationship to computer hardware:-
Computer software is so called in contrast to computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions (object code), which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all computer programs. The concept of reading different sequences of instructions into the memory of a device to control computations was invented by Charles Babbage as part of his difference engine. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem

Types:-
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems utilities and more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc. Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include text editors, compilers, interpreters, linkers, debuggers, and so on. An Integrated development environment (IDE) merges those tools into a software bundle, and a programmer may not need to type multiple commands for compiling, interpreter, debugging, tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced graphical user interface, or GUI. Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer related) tasks. Typical applications include industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software, databases, and computer games. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity now uses some form of application software. It is used to automate all sorts of functions.

Three layers:-
Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers, supercomputers etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.Platform software Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interfacewhich, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC you will usually have the ability to change the platform software. Application software Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications. User-written software User software tailors systems to meet the users specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, and scripts for graphics and animations. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been added by fellow co-workers.

Operation:-
Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as a hard drive, memory, or RAM). Once the software is loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. Computers operate by executing the computer program. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation -- moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together.Instructions may be performed sequentially, conditionally, or iteratively. Sequential instructions are those operations that are performed one after another. Conditional instructions are performed such that different sets of instructions execute depending on the value(s) of some data. In some languages this is known as an "if" statement. Iterative instructions are performed repetitively and may depend on some data value. This is sometimes called a "loop." Often, one instruction may "call" another set of instructions that are defined in some other program or module. When more than one computer processor is used, instructions may be executed simultaneously.A simple example of the way software operates is what happens when a user selects an entry such as "Copy" from a menu. In this case, a conditional instruction is executed to copy text from data in a 'document' area residing in memory, perhaps to an intermediate storage area known as a 'clipboard' data area. If a different menu entry such as "Paste" is chosen, the software may execute the instructions to copy the text from the clipboard data area to a specific location in the same or another document in memory.Depending on the application, even the example above could become complicated. The field of software engineering endeavors to manage the complexity of how software operates. This is especially true for software that operates in the context of a large or powerful computer system.Currently, almost the only limitations on the use of computer software in applications is the ingenuity of the designer/programmer. Consequently, large areas of activities (such as playing grand master level chess) formerly assumed to be incapable of software simulation are now routinely programmed. The only area that has so far proved reasonably secure from software simulation is the realm of human art— especially, pleasing music and literature.

about the Nalanda

Nalanda is the name of an ancient university in India. The name is a Sanskrit word that means giver of knowledge. It was named after the Naga . Another and accepted by him - is that the Bodhisatta once had his capital here and gave "alms without intermission," hence the name. It is located about 55 miles south east of Patna, and was a Buddhist center of learning from 427 CE to 1197 CE. It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history Arising and establishment of Nalanda University Description of Nalanda University Nalanda was one of the world's first residential universities. It had dormitories for students. In its heyday it accommodated over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. The university was considered an architectural masterpiece, and was marked by a lofty wall and one gate. Nalanda had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with many other meditation halls and classrooms. Plans for revival On December 9, 2006, the New York Times detailed a plan in the works to spend $1 billion to revive Nalanda University near the ancient site. A consortium led by Singapore and including China, India, Japan and other nations will attempt to raise $500 million to build a new university and another $500 million to develop necessary infrastructure On June 12, 2007, News Post India reported that the Japanese diplomat Noro Motoyasu said that "Japan will fund the setting up an international university in Nalanda in Bihar". On August 15, 2007, The Times of India reported that Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam has accepted the offer to join the revived Nalanda International University sometime in September 2007.

My first day I went to school.

School life started when I joined the school in June 1988 when I was only 2-1/2 years old. For me, the school meant play, play, and more play. Instead of sitting in the classroom and learning something, I used to roam around the garden doing a gardener's job. Two years passed and I was in U.K.G. when we shifted to a new school that was an old building with a big playground. In class I was scared of one of my subject teachers because she used to beat us very often.
All these years of my school life, I have made many friends and they have helped me a lot in my academics. Many a time I used to fight with my friends. But, then I think that everything is fair in friendship. In my school life I am gifted with excellent class teachers and subject teachers. They always help me to cope with my notes whenever I was absent or fell ill. When I was in class six, I was very good in my academics as well as in extra curricular activities. Then I put my feet on the 7th step of learning.

Growing and learning had been a great fun. Every year we were taken to different places on our school picnics. I was never able to go on to these excursion tours but I enjoyed every word of the stories told by my friends. When I was in class eight I won a couple of prizes in drawing and in interschool competitions. We were also given many projects as class assignments that helped all of us to know more about the subject. I was very fond of cricket (now in football). My friends and I played cricket in the school campus after the school got over. At the same time we all used to get lots of scolding from our principal.

Every Saturday we used to have our P.T. drill . As I reached class nine I realised that I should concentrate on my studies as the next year I was going to write my Board exams. The most memorable day in my life was the day when we bid farewell to our seniors. Well, now I am in class ten and all set to write my Boards in March 1999. Whenever I recollect all these incidents of school life. I feel very happy and I think in everybody's school life there are many ups and downs that mould one's life. School is a place where all of us learn to care and share. "School" is just not a place, but it is a large dome made up of discipline, knowledge, love and affection. I think in everybody's success, school plays a key role. I can describe my school in "Three S's, they are: Small, Sweet and Simple. My school was the best, is the best and will be the best.

About My Bihar

Bihar (Hindi, Urdu, pronunciation (help·info)) is a state of the Indian union situated in north India. Its capital is Patna.

To Bihar's north is the country of Nepal. On its other three sides Bihar is surrounded by the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the west, Jharkhand to the south and West Bengal to the east. Culturally, it is a part of the Hindi heartland of India. Bihar is also the birth place of the first president of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and legendary freedom fighters like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Basawon Singh (Sinha), Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha,Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan , Dr. Sri Krishna Sinha and Maulana Mazharul Haque.
Geography & climate
Geography Bihar is mainly a vast stretch of very fertile flat land. It has several rivers: Ganga, Son, Bagmati, Kosi, Budhi Gandak, and Falgu to name a few. Central parts of Bihar have some small hills, for example the Rajgir hills. The Himalayan mountains are to the north, in Nepal. To the south is the Chota Nagpur plateau, which was part of Bihar until 2000 but now is part of a separate state called jharkhand
Climate: Bihar is mildly cold in the winter (the lowest temperatures being around 5 to 10 degrees Celsius; 41 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit). Winter months are December and January. It is hot in the summer (40 to 45 degrees Celsius; 104 to 114 degrees Fahrenheit). April to mid June are the hot months. The monsoon months of June, July, August, and September see good rainfall. October & November and February & March have pleasant climate.

Economy

Bihar is one of the slow growing states of India. The economy is mainly based on agricultural and trading activities.Agriculture is mainly dependent upon the vagaries of the nature.Till the mid fifties, 25% of India's sugar output was from Bihar.Dalmianagar was a large agro - industrial town

Politics

Bihar was an important part of India's struggle for independence.Gandhi became the mass leader only after the Champaran Satyagraha that he launched on the repeated request of a local leader, Rajkumar Shukla, he was supported by great illumanaries like Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Brajkishore Prasad.

Transport & travel

Bihar has two airports - Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport, Patna and Gaya. Patna airport is connected to Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Lucknow, and Ranchi.Bihar is well-connected by railway lines to the rest of India.

Language & literature

Hindi (Official language of State), Urdu- (2nd official language of State government), Bhojpuri, Maithili, Bangla and Magadhi (Magahi) vajjika(spoken in samastipur and near about area)are the major languages spoken in Bihar.

Art

Madhubani Art of Mithila Region, Patna Kalam of Magadha Region.

Education

Historically, Bihar has been a major centre of learning, home to the universities of Nalanda (one of the earliest universities of India dating back to the fifth century) and Vikramshila.Bihar saw a revival of sorts during the later part of the British rule when they established a University at Patna along with a few other centres of high learning, viz. Science College, Patna, Prince of Wales Medical College (Now Patna Medical College and Hospital), and Bihar Engineering College (Now National Institute of Technology, Patna).